diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_device.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_device.rs
index 1244d27c..eb2cc5ec 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_device.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_device.rs
@@ -63,7 +63,6 @@ impl CgroupDevice {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<CgroupDeviceLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
 
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 7, 0) {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_skb.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_skb.rs
index 684fd18e..b5af4eae 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_skb.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_skb.rs
@@ -94,7 +94,6 @@ impl CgroupSkb {
     ) -> Result<CgroupSkbLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
 
         let attach_type = match attach_type {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock.rs
index c906ee6c..7337f0ff 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock.rs
@@ -73,7 +73,6 @@ impl CgroupSock {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<CgroupSockLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
         let attach_type = self.data.expected_attach_type.unwrap();
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 7, 0) {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock_addr.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock_addr.rs
index 98d60eb1..58b20802 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock_addr.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sock_addr.rs
@@ -74,7 +74,6 @@ impl CgroupSockAddr {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<CgroupSockAddrLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
         let attach_type = self.data.expected_attach_type.unwrap();
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 7, 0) {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sockopt.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sockopt.rs
index c137d769..f989662e 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sockopt.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sockopt.rs
@@ -71,7 +71,6 @@ impl CgroupSockopt {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<CgroupSockoptLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
         let attach_type = self.data.expected_attach_type.unwrap();
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 7, 0) {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sysctl.rs b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sysctl.rs
index d5325089..0b23a757 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sysctl.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/cgroup_sysctl.rs
@@ -65,7 +65,6 @@ impl CgroupSysctl {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<CgroupSysctlLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
 
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 7, 0) {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/extension.rs b/aya/src/programs/extension.rs
index e1aab2c2..bca94cde 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/extension.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/extension.rs
@@ -88,7 +88,6 @@ impl Extension {
     pub fn attach(&mut self) -> Result<ExtensionLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let target_fd = self
             .data
             .attach_prog_fd
@@ -128,7 +127,6 @@ impl Extension {
         let (_, btf_id) = get_btf_info(target_fd, func_name)?;
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         // the attach type must be set as 0, which is bpf_attach_type::BPF_CGROUP_INET_INGRESS
         let link_fd = bpf_link_create(
             prog_fd,
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/links.rs b/aya/src/programs/links.rs
index 52aa60de..17176ff4 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/links.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/links.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use std::{
     collections::{hash_map::Entry, HashMap},
     ffi::CString,
     io,
-    os::fd::{AsRawFd as _, OwnedFd, RawFd},
+    os::fd::{AsRawFd as _, BorrowedFd, OwnedFd, RawFd},
     path::{Path, PathBuf},
 };
 
@@ -237,12 +237,12 @@ pub struct ProgAttachLink {
 
 impl ProgAttachLink {
     pub(crate) fn new(
-        prog_fd: RawFd,
+        prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
         target_fd: RawFd,
         attach_type: bpf_attach_type,
     ) -> ProgAttachLink {
         ProgAttachLink {
-            prog_fd,
+            prog_fd: prog_fd.as_raw_fd(),
             target_fd: unsafe { dup(target_fd) },
             attach_type,
         }
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/lirc_mode2.rs b/aya/src/programs/lirc_mode2.rs
index 906eec96..8283645a 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/lirc_mode2.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/lirc_mode2.rs
@@ -63,7 +63,6 @@ impl LircMode2 {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, lircdev: T) -> Result<LircLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let lircdev_fd = lircdev.as_raw_fd();
 
         bpf_prog_attach(prog_fd, lircdev_fd, BPF_LIRC_MODE2).map_err(|(_, io_error)| {
@@ -104,7 +103,18 @@ impl LircMode2 {
 
         Ok(prog_fds
             .into_iter()
-            .map(|prog_fd| LircLink::new(prog_fd.into_raw_fd(), target_fd.as_raw_fd()))
+            .map(|prog_fd| {
+                LircLink::new(
+                    // SAFETY: The file descriptor will stay valid because
+                    // we are leaking it. We cannot use `OwnedFd` in here
+                    // because LircMode2::attach also uses LircLink::new
+                    // but with a borrowed file descriptor (of the loaded
+                    // program) without duplicating. TODO(#612): Fix API
+                    // or internals so this file descriptor isn't leaked
+                    unsafe { BorrowedFd::borrow_raw(prog_fd.into_raw_fd()) },
+                    target_fd.as_raw_fd(),
+                )
+            })
             .collect())
     }
 }
@@ -121,9 +131,9 @@ pub struct LircLink {
 }
 
 impl LircLink {
-    pub(crate) fn new(prog_fd: RawFd, target_fd: RawFd) -> LircLink {
+    pub(crate) fn new(prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>, target_fd: RawFd) -> LircLink {
         LircLink {
-            prog_fd,
+            prog_fd: prog_fd.as_raw_fd(),
             target_fd: unsafe { dup(target_fd) },
         }
     }
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/perf_attach.rs b/aya/src/programs/perf_attach.rs
index e9be37d5..bcbe83b8 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/perf_attach.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/perf_attach.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 //! Perf attach links.
-use std::os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _, OwnedFd, RawFd};
+use std::os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _, BorrowedFd, OwnedFd, RawFd};
 
 use crate::{
     generated::bpf_attach_type::BPF_PERF_EVENT,
@@ -70,7 +70,10 @@ impl Link for PerfLink {
     }
 }
 
-pub(crate) fn perf_attach(prog_fd: RawFd, fd: OwnedFd) -> Result<PerfLinkInner, ProgramError> {
+pub(crate) fn perf_attach(
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
+    fd: OwnedFd,
+) -> Result<PerfLinkInner, ProgramError> {
     if FEATURES.bpf_perf_link() {
         let link_fd = bpf_link_create(prog_fd, fd.as_raw_fd(), BPF_PERF_EVENT, None, 0).map_err(
             |(_, io_error)| SyscallError {
@@ -85,7 +88,7 @@ pub(crate) fn perf_attach(prog_fd: RawFd, fd: OwnedFd) -> Result<PerfLinkInner,
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn perf_attach_debugfs(
-    prog_fd: RawFd,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     fd: OwnedFd,
     event: ProbeEvent,
 ) -> Result<PerfLinkInner, ProgramError> {
@@ -93,16 +96,16 @@ pub(crate) fn perf_attach_debugfs(
 }
 
 fn perf_attach_either(
-    prog_fd: RawFd,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     fd: OwnedFd,
     event: Option<ProbeEvent>,
 ) -> Result<PerfLinkInner, ProgramError> {
-    perf_event_ioctl(fd.as_fd(), PERF_EVENT_IOC_SET_BPF, prog_fd).map_err(|(_, io_error)| {
-        SyscallError {
+    perf_event_ioctl(fd.as_fd(), PERF_EVENT_IOC_SET_BPF, prog_fd.as_raw_fd()).map_err(
+        |(_, io_error)| SyscallError {
             call: "PERF_EVENT_IOC_SET_BPF",
             io_error,
-        }
-    })?;
+        },
+    )?;
     perf_event_ioctl(fd.as_fd(), PERF_EVENT_IOC_ENABLE, 0).map_err(|(_, io_error)| {
         SyscallError {
             call: "PERF_EVENT_IOC_ENABLE",
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/perf_event.rs b/aya/src/programs/perf_event.rs
index bb60f082..dc4de264 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/perf_event.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/perf_event.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 //! Perf event programs.
 
-use std::os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _};
+use std::os::fd::AsFd as _;
 
 pub use crate::generated::{
     perf_hw_cache_id, perf_hw_cache_op_id, perf_hw_cache_op_result_id, perf_hw_id, perf_sw_ids,
@@ -148,7 +148,6 @@ impl PerfEvent {
     ) -> Result<PerfEventLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let (sample_period, sample_frequency) = match sample_policy {
             SamplePolicy::Period(period) => (period, None),
             SamplePolicy::Frequency(frequency) => (0, Some(frequency)),
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/probe.rs b/aya/src/programs/probe.rs
index 151c87ef..2a7946f1 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/probe.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/probe.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use libc::pid_t;
 use std::{
     fs::{self, OpenOptions},
     io::{self, Write},
-    os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _, OwnedFd},
+    os::fd::{AsFd as _, OwnedFd},
     path::Path,
     process,
     sync::atomic::{AtomicUsize, Ordering},
@@ -59,7 +59,6 @@ pub(crate) fn attach<T: Link + From<PerfLinkInner>>(
     // Use debugfs to create probe
     let prog_fd = program_data.fd()?;
     let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-    let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
     let link = if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() < KernelVersion::new(4, 17, 0) {
         let (fd, event_alias) = create_as_trace_point(kind, fn_name, offset, pid)?;
         perf_attach_debugfs(prog_fd, fd, ProbeEvent { kind, event_alias })
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/sk_lookup.rs b/aya/src/programs/sk_lookup.rs
index bbcdc3a3..ab322daa 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/sk_lookup.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/sk_lookup.rs
@@ -63,7 +63,6 @@ impl SkLookup {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, netns: T) -> Result<SkLookupLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let netns_fd = netns.as_raw_fd();
 
         let link_fd = bpf_link_create(prog_fd, netns_fd, BPF_SK_LOOKUP, None, 0).map_err(
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/sk_msg.rs b/aya/src/programs/sk_msg.rs
index 7a03b8e3..e7776d5d 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/sk_msg.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/sk_msg.rs
@@ -81,7 +81,6 @@ impl SkMsg {
     pub fn attach(&mut self, map: SockMapFd) -> Result<SkMsgLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let map_fd = map.as_raw_fd();
 
         bpf_prog_attach(prog_fd, map_fd, BPF_SK_MSG_VERDICT).map_err(|(_, io_error)| {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/sk_skb.rs b/aya/src/programs/sk_skb.rs
index a4c5de63..79ac0c23 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/sk_skb.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/sk_skb.rs
@@ -77,7 +77,6 @@ impl SkSkb {
     pub fn attach(&mut self, map: SockMapFd) -> Result<SkSkbLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let map_fd = map.as_raw_fd();
 
         let attach_type = match self.kind {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/sock_ops.rs b/aya/src/programs/sock_ops.rs
index 2a469048..a44d7058 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/sock_ops.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/sock_ops.rs
@@ -61,7 +61,6 @@ impl SockOps {
     pub fn attach<T: AsRawFd>(&mut self, cgroup: T) -> Result<SockOpsLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let cgroup_fd = cgroup.as_raw_fd();
 
         bpf_prog_attach(prog_fd, cgroup_fd, BPF_CGROUP_SOCK_OPS).map_err(|(_, io_error)| {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/tc.rs b/aya/src/programs/tc.rs
index e289e7d0..89e33271 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/tc.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/tc.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use thiserror::Error;
 use std::{
     ffi::{CStr, CString},
     io,
-    os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _},
+    os::fd::AsFd as _,
     path::Path,
 };
 
@@ -155,7 +155,6 @@ impl SchedClassifier {
     ) -> Result<SchedClassifierLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let if_index = ifindex_from_ifname(interface)
             .map_err(|io_error| TcError::NetlinkError { io_error })?;
         let (priority, handle) = unsafe {
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/trace_point.rs b/aya/src/programs/trace_point.rs
index 4c5d38db..ae828449 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/trace_point.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/trace_point.rs
@@ -1,9 +1,5 @@
 //! Tracepoint programs.
-use std::{
-    fs, io,
-    os::fd::{AsFd as _, AsRawFd as _},
-    path::Path,
-};
+use std::{fs, io, os::fd::AsFd as _, path::Path};
 use thiserror::Error;
 
 use crate::{
@@ -84,7 +80,6 @@ impl TracePoint {
     pub fn attach(&mut self, category: &str, name: &str) -> Result<TracePointLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let tracefs = find_tracefs_path()?;
         let id = read_sys_fs_trace_point_id(tracefs, category, name)?;
         let fd =
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/utils.rs b/aya/src/programs/utils.rs
index beb9b5f5..38b08286 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/utils.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/utils.rs
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ pub(crate) fn attach_raw_tracepoint<T: Link + From<FdLink>>(
 ) -> Result<T::Id, ProgramError> {
     let prog_fd = program_data.fd()?;
     let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-    let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
     let pfd =
         bpf_raw_tracepoint_open(tp_name, prog_fd).map_err(|(_code, io_error)| SyscallError {
             call: "bpf_raw_tracepoint_open",
diff --git a/aya/src/programs/xdp.rs b/aya/src/programs/xdp.rs
index 36eec7d6..453cf5e8 100644
--- a/aya/src/programs/xdp.rs
+++ b/aya/src/programs/xdp.rs
@@ -130,7 +130,6 @@ impl Xdp {
     ) -> Result<XdpLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         let if_index = if_index as RawFd;
 
         if KernelVersion::current().unwrap() >= KernelVersion::new(5, 9, 0) {
@@ -144,14 +143,14 @@ impl Xdp {
                 .links
                 .insert(XdpLink::new(XdpLinkInner::FdLink(FdLink::new(link_fd))))
         } else {
-            unsafe { netlink_set_xdp_fd(if_index, prog_fd, None, flags.bits()) }
+            unsafe { netlink_set_xdp_fd(if_index, Some(prog_fd), None, flags.bits()) }
                 .map_err(|io_error| XdpError::NetlinkError { io_error })?;
 
             self.data
                 .links
                 .insert(XdpLink::new(XdpLinkInner::NlLink(NlLink {
                     if_index,
-                    prog_fd,
+                    prog_fd: prog_fd.as_raw_fd(),
                     flags,
                 })))
         }
@@ -178,7 +177,6 @@ impl Xdp {
     pub fn attach_to_link(&mut self, link: XdpLink) -> Result<XdpLinkId, ProgramError> {
         let prog_fd = self.fd()?;
         let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_fd();
-        let prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd();
         match link.into_inner() {
             XdpLinkInner::FdLink(fd_link) => {
                 let link_fd = fd_link.fd;
@@ -199,15 +197,20 @@ impl Xdp {
                 let flags = nl_link.flags;
                 let replace_flags = flags | XdpFlags::REPLACE;
                 unsafe {
-                    netlink_set_xdp_fd(if_index, prog_fd, Some(old_prog_fd), replace_flags.bits())
-                        .map_err(|io_error| XdpError::NetlinkError { io_error })?;
+                    netlink_set_xdp_fd(
+                        if_index,
+                        Some(prog_fd),
+                        Some(old_prog_fd),
+                        replace_flags.bits(),
+                    )
+                    .map_err(|io_error| XdpError::NetlinkError { io_error })?;
                 }
 
                 self.data
                     .links
                     .insert(XdpLink::new(XdpLinkInner::NlLink(NlLink {
                         if_index,
-                        prog_fd,
+                        prog_fd: prog_fd.as_raw_fd(),
                         flags,
                     })))
             }
@@ -235,7 +238,7 @@ impl Link for NlLink {
         } else {
             self.flags.bits()
         };
-        let _ = unsafe { netlink_set_xdp_fd(self.if_index, -1, Some(self.prog_fd), flags) };
+        let _ = unsafe { netlink_set_xdp_fd(self.if_index, None, Some(self.prog_fd), flags) };
         Ok(())
     }
 }
diff --git a/aya/src/sys/bpf.rs b/aya/src/sys/bpf.rs
index 546bf0c4..f8dd3ca8 100644
--- a/aya/src/sys/bpf.rs
+++ b/aya/src/sys/bpf.rs
@@ -367,7 +367,7 @@ pub(crate) fn bpf_map_freeze(fd: RawFd) -> SysResult<c_long> {
 
 // since kernel 5.7
 pub(crate) fn bpf_link_create(
-    prog_fd: RawFd,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     target_fd: RawFd,
     attach_type: bpf_attach_type,
     btf_id: Option<u32>,
@@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ pub(crate) fn bpf_link_create(
 ) -> SysResult<OwnedFd> {
     let mut attr = unsafe { mem::zeroed::<bpf_attr>() };
 
-    attr.link_create.__bindgen_anon_1.prog_fd = prog_fd as u32;
+    attr.link_create.__bindgen_anon_1.prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd() as u32;
     attr.link_create.__bindgen_anon_2.target_fd = target_fd as u32;
     attr.link_create.attach_type = attach_type as u32;
     attr.link_create.flags = flags;
@@ -390,14 +390,14 @@ pub(crate) fn bpf_link_create(
 // since kernel 5.7
 pub(crate) fn bpf_link_update(
     link_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
-    new_prog_fd: RawFd,
+    new_prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     old_prog_fd: Option<RawFd>,
     flags: u32,
 ) -> SysResult<c_long> {
     let mut attr = unsafe { mem::zeroed::<bpf_attr>() };
 
     attr.link_update.link_fd = link_fd.as_raw_fd() as u32;
-    attr.link_update.__bindgen_anon_1.new_prog_fd = new_prog_fd as u32;
+    attr.link_update.__bindgen_anon_1.new_prog_fd = new_prog_fd.as_raw_fd() as u32;
     if let Some(fd) = old_prog_fd {
         attr.link_update.__bindgen_anon_2.old_prog_fd = fd as u32;
         attr.link_update.flags = flags | BPF_F_REPLACE;
@@ -409,13 +409,13 @@ pub(crate) fn bpf_link_update(
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn bpf_prog_attach(
-    prog_fd: RawFd,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     target_fd: RawFd,
     attach_type: bpf_attach_type,
 ) -> SysResult<c_long> {
     let mut attr = unsafe { mem::zeroed::<bpf_attr>() };
 
-    attr.__bindgen_anon_5.attach_bpf_fd = prog_fd as u32;
+    attr.__bindgen_anon_5.attach_bpf_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd() as u32;
     attr.__bindgen_anon_5.target_fd = target_fd as u32;
     attr.__bindgen_anon_5.attach_type = attach_type as u32;
 
@@ -547,14 +547,17 @@ pub(crate) fn btf_obj_get_info_by_fd(
     })
 }
 
-pub(crate) fn bpf_raw_tracepoint_open(name: Option<&CStr>, prog_fd: RawFd) -> SysResult<OwnedFd> {
+pub(crate) fn bpf_raw_tracepoint_open(
+    name: Option<&CStr>,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
+) -> SysResult<OwnedFd> {
     let mut attr = unsafe { mem::zeroed::<bpf_attr>() };
 
     attr.raw_tracepoint.name = match name {
         Some(n) => n.as_ptr() as u64,
         None => 0,
     };
-    attr.raw_tracepoint.prog_fd = prog_fd as u32;
+    attr.raw_tracepoint.prog_fd = prog_fd.as_raw_fd() as u32;
 
     // SAFETY: BPF_RAW_TRACEPOINT_OPEN returns a new file descriptor.
     unsafe { fd_sys_bpf(bpf_cmd::BPF_RAW_TRACEPOINT_OPEN, &mut attr) }
@@ -678,7 +681,6 @@ pub(crate) fn is_perf_link_supported() -> bool {
 
     if let Ok(fd) = bpf_prog_load(&mut attr) {
         let fd = fd.as_fd();
-        let fd = fd.as_raw_fd();
         matches!(
             // Uses an invalid target FD so we get EBADF if supported.
             bpf_link_create(fd, -1, bpf_attach_type::BPF_PERF_EVENT, None, 0),
diff --git a/aya/src/sys/netlink.rs b/aya/src/sys/netlink.rs
index 1dfae70d..9bc75609 100644
--- a/aya/src/sys/netlink.rs
+++ b/aya/src/sys/netlink.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,10 @@
-use std::{collections::HashMap, ffi::CStr, io, mem, os::fd::RawFd, ptr, slice};
+use std::{
+    collections::HashMap,
+    ffi::CStr,
+    io, mem,
+    os::fd::{AsRawFd as _, BorrowedFd, RawFd},
+    ptr, slice,
+};
 use thiserror::Error;
 
 use libc::{
@@ -25,7 +31,7 @@ const NLA_HDR_LEN: usize = align_to(mem::size_of::<nlattr>(), NLA_ALIGNTO as usi
 // netlink alignments
 pub(crate) unsafe fn netlink_set_xdp_fd(
     if_index: i32,
-    fd: RawFd,
+    fd: Option<BorrowedFd<'_>>,
     old_fd: Option<RawFd>,
     flags: u32,
 ) -> Result<(), io::Error> {
@@ -48,7 +54,10 @@ pub(crate) unsafe fn netlink_set_xdp_fd(
     // write the attrs
     let attrs_buf = request_attributes(&mut req, nlmsg_len);
     let mut attrs = NestedAttrs::new(attrs_buf, IFLA_XDP);
-    attrs.write_attr(IFLA_XDP_FD as u16, fd)?;
+    attrs.write_attr(
+        IFLA_XDP_FD as u16,
+        fd.map(|fd| fd.as_raw_fd()).unwrap_or(-1),
+    )?;
 
     if flags > 0 {
         attrs.write_attr(IFLA_XDP_FLAGS as u16, flags)?;
@@ -101,7 +110,7 @@ pub(crate) unsafe fn netlink_qdisc_add_clsact(if_index: i32) -> Result<(), io::E
 pub(crate) unsafe fn netlink_qdisc_attach(
     if_index: i32,
     attach_type: &TcAttachType,
-    prog_fd: RawFd,
+    prog_fd: BorrowedFd<'_>,
     prog_name: &CStr,
     priority: u16,
     handle: u32,